AI Deciphers Burnt Herculaneum Scrolls

For nearly two millennia, hundreds of ancient papyrus scrolls lay buried under volcanic mud, carbonized into lumps of coal by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. These artifacts, known as the Herculaneum scrolls, were considered unreadable because opening them would turn them to dust. However, a groundbreaking combination of high-energy physics and artificial intelligence has finally unlocked their secrets, marking one of the most significant archaeological breakthroughs of the 21st century.

The Vesuvius Challenge

The journey to reading these scrolls accelerated rapidly in 2023 with the launch of the Vesuvius Challenge. This global machine learning competition was established by former GitHub CEO Nat Friedman, entrepreneur Daniel Gross, and computer scientist Dr. Brent Seales from the University of Kentucky. They offered over $1 million in prizes to anyone who could develop open-source code to detect ink on high-resolution X-ray scans of the rolled-up papyri.

Before this competition, the contents of the library found in the “Villa of the Papyri” were a mystery. Physical attempts to unroll them in earlier centuries resulted in fragmentation and destruction. The challenge provided researchers worldwide with 3D X-ray scans of two scrolls and fragments, inviting the global AI community to solve a puzzle that had stumped historians for centuries.

How Virtual Unwrapping Works

The process relies on a technique called “virtual unwrapping,” pioneered by Dr. Seales. It involves three distinct steps:

• Scanning: The scrolls are scanned using a particle accelerator (diamond light source) to generate incredibly detailed 3D X-ray tomography. This creates a digital replica of the internal layers of the scroll without physically touching the object.
• Segmentation: Researchers digitally trace the crumpled, twisted layers of the papyrus within the 3D scan. This allows the computer to flatten the rolled surface into a 2D sheet.
• Ink Detection: This is the most difficult step. Unlike medieval parchments that used metallic inks, the Herculaneum scrolls were written with carbon-based ink. Since the papyrus itself was carbonized by the volcano, the ink and the paper have the same density. They appear identical to the human eye on an X-ray scan.

The AI Breakthrough

To solve the visibility problem, competitors used machine learning models to detect subtle textural differences on the surface of the papyrus. Even though the ink does not show up as a different color on the X-ray, it sits on top of the papyrus fibers, creating a microscopic pattern that AI can recognize.

In late 2023, a 21-year-old student named Luke Farritor became the first person in 2,000 years to read a complete word from an unopened scroll. He trained a machine learning model to recognize “crackle patterns” in the ink. His model successfully revealed the Greek word porphyras, which means “purple.”

Following this initial success, a team of three researchers—Youssef Nader, Luke Farritor, and Julian Schilliger—combined their efforts to win the $700,000 Grand Prize in early 2024. Their collective algorithms successfully unrolled and read four passages of text, comprising about 5% of a single scroll.

What the Ancient Texts Reveal

The text deciphered by the AI is a philosophical treatise, likely written by the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara. The deciphered passages do not merely list dry facts; they contain playful and sophisticated arguments about the nature of pleasure and the good life.

Key findings from the translated text include:

• Music and Food: The author discusses whether the scarcity of goods (like food) makes them more pleasurable than abundant goods. The text argues that while scarcity might increase anticipation, it does not necessarily increase the direct pleasure of consumption.
• The Color Purple: The mention of porphyras is part of a broader discussion on the senses and aesthetics, critiquing those who focus on superficial definitions of beauty.
• Philosophical Adversaries: The author appears to be debating with fellow philosophers, specifically the Stoics, regarding their views on luxury and necessity.

Scholars suggest that this scroll is likely part of a multi-volume work. The tone is surprisingly conversational and polemical, offering a direct window into the intellectual debates of the Roman Empire.

Why This Matters for History

The success of the Vesuvius Challenge proves that the remaining 600 to 800 scrolls found in the Herculaneum library can eventually be read. This library is the only intact library to survive from antiquity.

Most ancient texts we have today are copies of copies, passed down through medieval scribes. These scrolls, however, are original documents. Unlocking the rest of the collection could reveal:

• Lost History: Works by Titus Livius (Livy) or poems by Sappho that were previously thought lost forever.
• Early Philosophy: More authentic texts regarding Epicureanism and Stoicism.
• Political Context: Insights into the political climate of Rome during the transition from Republic to Empire.

The technology developed here also has applications beyond archaeology. The same “virtual unwrapping” and contrast-enhancing AI techniques could be applied to medical imaging or industrial analysis.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I read the translated text myself? Yes, the Vesuvius Challenge organizers have published the images and the preliminary translations of the winning submission on their website. The text is in ancient Greek, but translations into English are available.

How many scrolls are there left to read? There are approximately 800 scrolls currently held in Naples, Italy. However, archaeologists believe many more scrolls may still be buried in the unexcavated sections of the Villa of the Papyri.

Did the X-rays damage the scrolls? No. The scans were performed using non-invasive techniques. The physical scrolls remain in their carbonized state, protected from the air and humidity that would cause them to crumble.

Who owns the scrolls? The physical scrolls are the property of the Italian state and are curated by the Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli. The digital data, however, has been made open source to encourage global collaboration.

Will AI replace archaeologists? Not at all. AI is a tool that allows archaeologists and papyrologists to do their work. Once the AI extracts the text, human experts are required to translate the Greek, interpret the context, and verify the accuracy of the reconstruction.